Psychological Trauma and Memory

What factors influence the process of interviewing children with traumatic experiences? Can these factors affect memory processes and suggestibility?

Eisen and Goodman (1998) explain that opinions vary on the definition of "trauma," but there are key points on which most agree: "Trauma is generally an experience that: (a) Poses a threat to the individual’s health and well-being;
(b) Leaves the individual feeling helpless in the face of extreme danger, leading to intense anxiety and instinctual arousal;
(c) Suppresses the individual’s survival mechanisms;
(d) Disrupts basic beliefs related to self-preservation;
(e) Demonstrates that the world is uncontrollable and unpredictable."

When stress is moderate, memory recall can actually be enhanced. However, if stress is excessively high or extremely low, it can negatively impact the ability to recall events. This general principle is accepted, though other factors should be considered in memory-related processes, such as depression, individual coping styles, and attachment (Gordon et al., 2001).

In situations of high arousal linked to traumatic experiences, attention may "narrow." This means that the perception of sensory information becomes limited, focusing solely on immediate threats. Consequently, a child may remember only one central object or frightening detail, with little information retained about other external details.

Physiological and Psychological Factors in Trauma and Memory

Chronic stress can impact brain development in children, leading to structural changes. This is especially relevant for children who experience chronic abuse and neglect.

Fear as a Response At the onset of evolution, when a person perceived danger, they faced the choice to either fight or freeze in the hope that the threat would move away. The physical reactions to fear prepare the body for a potential fight-or-flight response, such as increased blood pressure and heart rate, along with a rush of hormones to heighten alertness.

When a child faces frequent threats, sensitivity to fear and unpredictability increases, resulting in heightened anticipation of danger. The body releases cortisol to counterbalance elevated adrenaline levels, but when the child lives in constant fear, this process repeats frequently. Excess cortisol accumulates, which can have toxic effects on neurons in critical areas of the brain, impairing emotional regulation, impulse control, logical thinking, and social behavior.

Hyper-Arousal in Abused Children Victims of abuse often exhibit a state of hyper-arousal, reacting with fear to even minor stimuli that would not provoke a reaction in other children. Abused children become highly sensitive to non-verbal cues indicating potential danger, remaining "on alert" even in benign environments.

Implications for Interviewing/Questioning Professionals conducting interviews or assessments can sometimes manage anxiety-provoking situations to balance stress for the child. However, some signs of the interviewer’s own anxiety may leak through in non-verbal cues. An abused child might misinterpret these cues as indications of impending danger, which can negatively affect their ability to listen, comprehend, recall, and narrate coherently during the interview.

Establishing Connection and Support The best approach in such cases is for the interviewer to emphasize support and goodwill toward the child. However, some children may still retain heightened vigilance due to expectations of danger. If the interviewer holds no specific expectations about how the child should respond to support or goodwill, this awareness can help replace potential frustration with empathy, maintaining a connection with the child. Additionally, the interviewer may offer the child the option to signal any discomfort, such as by raising their hand.

Understanding the Child's Background This emphasizes the importance of the interviewer’s efforts to learn as much as possible about the child’s other relationships, including family, school, extracurricular activities, or doctor visits. This is particularly crucial when there is a suspicion that the child has experienced repeated trauma or multiple psychological traumas in the past.